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''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' is a book by Charles Darwin, published in 1872, concerning genetically determined aspects of behaviour. It was published thirteen years after ''On the Origin of Species'' and alongside his 1871 book ''The Descent of Man'', it is Darwin's main consideration of ''human'' origins. In this book, Darwin seeks to trace the animal origins of human characteristics, such as the pursing of the lips in concentration and the tightening of the muscles around the eyes in anger and efforts of memory. Darwin sought out the opinions of some eminent British psychiatrists, notably James Crichton-Browne, in the preparation of the book which forms Darwin's main contribution to psychology.〔Darwin Charles, Ekman Paul, Prodger Phillip (1998) ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'', 3rd edn, London: Harper Collins.〕''The Expression of the Emotions'' is also an important landmark in the history of book illustration. ==The book's development: biographical aspects== In the weeks before Queen Victoria's coronation in 1838, Charles Darwin sought medical advice on his mysterious physical symptoms, and then travelled to Scotland for a period of rest and a "geologizing expedition" – but actually spent some of his time re-exploring the old haunts of his undergraduate days. On the day of the coronation, 28 June 1838, Darwin was in Edinburgh. A few days later, he opened a private notebook with philosophical and psychological speculation – the ''M Notebook'' – and, over the next three months, filled it with his thoughts about possible interactions of hereditary factors with the mental and behavioural aspects of human and animal life. The critical importance of the ''M notebook'' has usually been viewed in its relationship to Darwin's conception of ''natural selection'' as the central mechanism of evolutionary development, which he probably grasped some time in September 1838.〔Ospovat, Dov (1981) ''The Development of Darwin's Theory'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press〕〔Mayr, Ernst (1991) ''One Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the genesis of modern evolutionary thought'' Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press〕 These notes have a tentative and fragmented quality, especially in Darwin's descriptions of conversation with his father (a successful doctor with a special interest in psychiatric problems) about recurring patterns of behaviour in successive generations of his patients' families. Darwin was anxious about the materialistic drift in his thinking – and of the disrepute which this could attract in early Victorian England – at the time, he was mentally preparing for marriage with his cousin Emma Wedgwood who held firm Christian beliefs. On 21 September 1838, Darwin recorded a confused and disturbing dream in which he was involved in a public execution where the corpse came to life and claimed to have faced death like a hero.〔Browne, E. Janet (1995) ''Charles Darwin: Voyaging'', London: Jonathan Cape, pp 383 – 384.〕 In summary: Darwin put together the central features of his evolutionary theory at the same time that he was considering a scientific understanding of human behaviour and family life – and he was in some emotional turmoil. A discussion of the significance of Darwin's early notebooks can be found in Paul H. Barrett's ''Metaphysics, Materialism and the Evolution of Mind – Early Writings of Charles Darwin'' (1980).〔 Little of this surfaced in ''On the Origin of Species'' in 1859, although Chapter 7 contains a mildly expressed argument on instinctive behaviour. In the public management of his evolutionary theory, Darwin understood that its relevance to human emotional life could draw a hostile response. Nevertheless, while preparing the text of ''The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication'' in 1866, Darwin took the decision to focus his public statement of evolutionary biology with a book on human ancestry, sexual selection and emotional life. After his initial correspondence with the psychiatrist James Crichton-Browne〔Pearn, Alison M. (2010) "This Excellent Observer..." : the Correspondence between Charles Darwin and James Crichton-Browne, 1869 – 75, ''History of Psychiatry'', 21, 160 – 175〕 Darwin set aside his material concerning emotional expression to complete ''The Descent of Man'', which covered human ancestry and sexual selection. Darwin concluded work on ''The Descent of Man'' on 15 January 1871. Two days later, he started work on ''The Expression of the Emotions'' and, on 22 August 1872, he finished work on the proofs. In this way, Darwin brought his evolutionary theory into close approximation with behavioural science, although many Darwin scholars have remarked on a kind of spectral Lamarckism haunting the text of the ''Emotions''. Darwin notes the universal nature of expressions in the book, writing, "the young and the old of widely different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements." This connection of mental states to the neurological organisation of movement (as the words ''motive'' and ''emotion'' suggest) was central to Darwin's understanding of emotion. Darwin himself displayed many biographical links between his psychological life and locomotion, taking long, solitary walks around Shrewsbury after his mother's death in 1817, in his seashore rambles near Edinburgh with the Lamarckian evolutionist Robert Edmond Grant in 1826/1827,〔Desmond, Adrian (1982) ''Archetypes and Ancestors: Palaeontology in Victorian London 1850 – 1875'' Chicago: Chicago University of Chicago Press, pp 116 – 121〕〔Desmond, Adrian (1989) ''The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine and Reform in Radical London'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press〕〔Stott, Rebecca (2003) ''Darwin and the Barnacle'' London: Faber and Faber〕 and in the laying out of the sandwalk, his "thinking path", at Down House in Kent in 1846.〔Boulter, Michael (2006) ''Darwin's Garden: Down House and the Origin of Species'' London: Constable〕 These aspects of Darwin's personal relationships are discussed in John Bowlby's (1990) psychoanalytic biography of Darwin.〔Bowlby, John (1990) ''Charles Darwin, A Biography'' London: Hutchinson.〕 Darwin points to a shared human and animal ancestry in sharp contrast to the arguments deployed in Charles Bell's ''Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression'' (1824),〔Bell, Charles (1806) ''Essays on the Anatomy of Expression in Painting'' London:〕〔Bell, Charles (1824) ''Essays on the Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression'' London: John Murray〕 which claimed that there were divinely created human muscles to express uniquely human feelings. Bell's famous aphorism on the subject was, "Expression is to the passions as language is to thought." In ''The Expression'', Darwin reformulates the issues at play, writing, "The force of language is much aided by the expressive movements of the face and body" - hinting at a neurological intimacy of language with psychomotor function (body language). However, Darwin agreed with Bell's emphasis on the expressive functions of the muscles of respiration.〔Bowlby, pp. 6 – 14〕 Darwin had listened to an attack on Bell's opinions by the phrenologist William A. F. Browne at the Plinian Society in December 1826, when he was a medical student at Edinburgh University. Darwin's response to Bell's neurological theories is discussed by Lucy Hartley (2001).〔Hartley, Lucy (2001) ''Physiognomy and the Meaning of Expression in Nineteenth Century Culture'' Cambridge University Press〕 In the composition of the book, Darwin drew on worldwide responses to his questionnaire (circulated in the early months of 1867) concerning emotional expression in different ethnic groups, on hundreds of photographs of actors, babies and children, and on descriptions of psychiatric patients in the West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum at Wakefield in West Yorkshire. Darwin corresponded intensively with James Crichton-Browne, the superintendent of the Wakefield asylum and the son of the phrenologist William A. F. Browne. At the time, Crichton-Browne was preparing his ''West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports'', and Darwin remarked to him that ''The Expression'' "should be called by Darwin ''and'' Browne".〔Walmsley, Tom (1993) Psychiatry in Descent: Darwin and the Brownes, ''Psychiatric Bulletin'', 17, 748 – 751〕 Darwin also drew on his personal experience of the symptoms of bereavement and studied the text of Henry Maudsley's 1870 Gulstonian lectures on ''Body and Mind''.〔Maudsley, Henry (1870) ''Body And Mind: The Gulstonian Lectures for 1870'' London: Macmillan and Co.〕 He considered other approaches to the study of emotions, including their depiction in the arts – discussed by the anatomist Robert Knox in his ''Manual of Artistic Anatomy'' (1852) and by the actor Henry Siddons in his ''Practical Illustrations of Rhetorical Gesture and Action'' (1807) – but abandoned them as unreliable. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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